The most abundant heteropolysaccharides of the body are the glycosaminoglycans. Glycosaminoglycans are unbranched carbohydrate polymers, consisting of repeating disaccharide units (only keratan sulphate is branched in the core region of the carbohydrate). The disaccharide units generally comprise, as a first saccharide unit, one of two modified sugars—N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc) or N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc). The second unit is usually an uronic acid, such as glucuronic acid (GlcUA) or iduronate.
Glycosaminoglycans are negatively charged molecules, and have an extended conformation that imparts high viscosity when in solution. Glycosaminoglycans are located primarily on the surface of cells or in the extracellular matrix. Glycosaminoglycans also have low compressibility in solution and, as a result, are ideal as a physiological lubricating fluid, e.g., joints. The rigidity of glycosaminoglycans provides structural integrity to cells and provides passageways between cells, allowing for cell migration. The glycosaminoglycans of highest physiological importance are hyaluronan, chondroitin sulfate, heparin, heparan sulfate, dermatan sulfate, and keratan sulfate. Most glycosaminoglycans bind covalently to a proteoglycan core protein through specific oligosaccharide structures. Hyaluronan forms large aggregates with certain proteoglycans, but is an exception as free carbohydrate chains form non-covalent complexes with proteoglycans.
Numerous roles of hyaluronan in the body have been identified (see, Laurent T. C. and Fraser J. R. E., 1992, FASEB J. 6: 2397-2404; and Toole B. P., 1991, “Proteoglycans and hyaluronan in morphogenesis and differentiation.” In: Cell Biology of the Extracellular Matrix, pp. 305-341, Hay E. D., ed., Plenum, New York). Hyaluronan is present in hyaline cartilage, synovial joint fluid, and skin tissue, both dermis and epidermis. Hyaluronan is also suspected of having a role in numerous physiological functions, such as adhesion, development, cell motility, cancer, angiogenesis, and wound healing. Due to the unique physical and biological properties of hyaluronan, it is employed in eye and joint surgery and is being evaluated in other medical procedures.
The terms “hyaluronan” or “hyaluronic acid” are used in literature to mean acidic polysaccharides with different molecular weights constituted by residues of D-glucuronic and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine acids, which occur naturally in cell surfaces, in the basic extracellular substances of the connective tissue of vertebrates, in the synovial fluid of the joints, in the endobulbar fluid of the eye, in human umbilical cord tissue and in cocks' combs.
The term “hyaluronic acid” is in fact usually used as meaning a whole series of polysaccharides with alternating residues of D-glucuronic and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine acids with varying molecular weights or even the degraded fractions of the same, and it would therefore seem more correct to use the plural term of “hyaluronic acids”. The singular term will, however, be used all the same in this description; in addition, the abbreviation “HA” will frequently be used in place of this collective term.
HA plays an important role in the biological organism, as a mechanical support for the cells of many tissues, such as the skin, tendons, muscles and cartilage, it is a main component of the intercellular matrix. HA also plays other important parts in the biological processes, such as the moistening of tissues, and lubrication.
HA may be extracted from the above mentioned natural tissues, although today it is preferred to prepare it by microbiological methods to minimize the potential risk of transferring infectious agents, and to increase product uniformity, quality and availability.
HA and its various molecular size fractions and the respective salts thereof have been used as medicaments, especially in treatment of arthropathies, as an auxiliary and/or substitute agent for natural organs and tissues, especially in ophtalmology and cosmetic surgery, and as agents in cosmetic preparations. Products of hyaluronan have also been developed for use in orthopaedics, rheumatology, and dermatology.
HA may also be used as an additive for various polymeric materials used for sanitary and surgical articles, such as polyurethanes, polyesters etc. with the effect of rendering these materials biocompatible.
De-N-acetylation of HA with hydrazine has been described in the literature (Crescenzi et al. (2002) New cross-linked and sulfated derivatives of partially deacetylated hyaluronan: Synthesis and preliminary characterization, Biopolymers 64, 86-94).
Branching of chitosans by reductive HONO degradation and reductive N-alkylation has been described (Tømmeraas et al. (2002) Carbohydrate Research 337, 2455-2462).